Differential effects of human density, environmental health, and group size on urban coyote detection, boldness, and exploration

0
Differential effects of human density, environmental health, and group size on urban coyote detection, boldness, and exploration
  • Fischer, J. D., Schneider, S. C., Ahlers, A. A. & Miller, J. R. Categorizing wildlife responses to urbanization and conservation implications of terminology. Conserv. Biol. 29, 1246–1248 (2015).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hahs, A. K. et al. Urbanisation generates multiple trait syndromes for terrestrial animal taxa worldwide. Nat. Commun. 14, 4751 (2023).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowry, H., Lill, A. & Wong, B. B. Behavioural responses of wildlife to urban environments. Biol. Rev. 88, 537–549 (2013).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Sol, D., Lapiedra, O. & González-Lagos, C. Behavioural adjustments for a life in the city. Anim. Behav. 85, 1101–1112 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, S. L. et al. An integrated conceptual framework for long-term social–ecological research. Front. Ecol. Environ. 9, 351–357 (2011).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Des Roches, S. et al. Socio-eco-evolutionary dynamics in cities. Evol. Appl. 14, 248–267 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, T., Johnson, J. R., Lambert, M. R., Schell, C. J. & Sih, A. Behavioral plasticity can facilitate evolution in urban environments. Trends Ecol. Evol. 37, 1092–1103 (2022).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Moll, R. J., Killion, A. K., Hayward, M. W. & Montgomery, R. A. A framework for the Eltonian niche of humans. Bioscience 71, 928–941 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller, A. P. et al. Urban habitats and feeders both contribute to flight initiation distance reduction in birds. Behav. Ecol. 26, 861–865 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Nepali, A., Katuwal, H. B., Kc, S., Regmi, S. & Sharma, H. P. Flight initiation distance and bird tolerance to humans in rural and urban habitats. Royal Society Open Science 11, 240332 (2024).

    Article 
    ADS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Uchida, K., Suzuki, K. K., Shimamoto, T., Yanagawa, H. & Koizumi, I. Decreased vigilance or habituation to humans Mechanisms on increased boldness in urban animals. Behav. Ecol. 30, 1583–1590 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlen, E. J., Li, R. & Winchell, K. M. Urbanization predicts flight initiation distance in feral pigeons (Columba livia) across New York City. Anim. Behav. 178, 229–245 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Ritzel, K. & Gallo, T. Behavior change in urban mammals: a systematic review. Front. Ecol. Evol. 8, 576665 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Nickel, B. A., Suraci, J. P., Allen, M. L. & Wilmers, C. C. Human presence and human footprint have non-equivalent effects on wildlife spatiotemporal habitat use. Biol. Cons. 241, 108383 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Riley, S. P., Sikich, J. A. & Benson, J. F. Big cats in the big city: Spatial ecology of mountain lions in greater Los Angeles. J. Wildl. Manag. 85, 1527–1542 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Gámez, S. & Harris, N. C. Living in the concrete jungle: carnivore spatial ecology in urban parks. Ecol. Appl. 31, e02393 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Moll, R. J. et al. Humans and urban development mediate the sympatry of competing carnivores. Urban Ecosystems 21, 765–778 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J. Fear, human shields and the redistribution of prey and predators in protected areas. Biol. Let. 3, 620–623 (2007).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Møller, A. P. Urban areas as refuges from predators and flight distance of prey. Behav. Ecol. 23, 1030–1035 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Putman, B. J. & Tippie, Z. A. Big city living: a global meta-analysis reveals positive impact of urbanization on body size in lizards. Front. Ecol. Evol. 8, 580745 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Agyeman, J., Schlosberg, D., Craven, L. & Matthews, C. Trends and directions in environmental justice: from inequity to everyday life, community, and just sustainabilities. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour. 41, 321–340 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hillier, A. E. Redlining and the home owners’ loan corporation. J. Urban Hist. 29, 394–420 (2003).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Markley, S. Federal ‘redlining’maps: A critical reappraisal. Urban Studies 61, 195–213 (2024).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, H. M., Morello-Frosch, R., Marshall, J. D. & Apte, J. S. Historical redlining is associated with present-day air pollution disparities in US cities. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 9, 345–350 (2022).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Locke, D. H. et al. Residential housing segregation and urban tree canopy in 37 US Cities. npj Urban Sustain 1, 1–9 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Estien, C. O., Wilkinson, C. E., Morello-Frosch, R. & Schell, C. J. Historical redlining is associated with disparities in environmental quality across California. Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 11, 54–59 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson-Olivieri, J. R. et al. Inequalities in noise will affect urban wildlife. Nature Ecology & Evolution 8, 163–174 (2024).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Salazar-Miranda, A., Conzelmann, C., Phan, T. & Hoffman, J. Long-term effects of redlining on climate risk exposure. Nature Cities 1, 436–444 (2024).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, E. M. et al. Historical racial redlining and contemporary patterns of income inequality negatively affect birds, their habitat, and people in Los Angeles, California. Ornithological Applications duad044 (2023) https://doi.org/10.1093/ornithapp/duad044.

  • Estien, C. O., Fidino, M., Wilkinson, C. E., Morello-Frosch, R. & Schell, C. J. Historical redlining is associated with disparities in wildlife biodiversity in four California cities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 121, e2321441121 (2024).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lagesson, A. et al. Fish on steroids: Temperature-dependent effects of 17β-trenbolone on predator escape, boldness, and exploratory behaviors. Environ. Pollut. 245, 243–252 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Renick, V. C., Weinersmith, K., Vidal-Dorsch, D. E. & Anderson, T. W. Effects of a pesticide and a parasite on neurological, endocrine, and behavioral responses of an estuarine fish. Aquat. Toxicol. 170, 335–343 (2016).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Tüzün, N., Müller, S., Koch, K. & Stoks, R. Pesticide-induced changes in personality depend on the urbanization level. Anim. Behav. 134, 45–55 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Zala, S. M. & Penn, D. J. Abnormal behaviours induced by chemical pollution: a review of the evidence and new challenges. Anim. Behav. 68, 649–664 (2004).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Flahr, L. M., Michel, N. L., Zahara, A. R., Jones, P. D. & Morrissey, C. A. Developmental exposure to Aroclor 1254 alters migratory behavior in juvenile European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Environ. Sci. Technol. 49, 6274–6283 (2015).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorissen, L., Snoeijs, T., Duyse, E. V. & Eens, M. Heavy metal pollution affects dawn singing behaviour in a small passerine bird. Oecologia 145, 504–509 (2005).

    Article 
    ADS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Grunst, A. S. et al. Variation in personality traits across a metal pollution gradient in a free-living songbird. Sci. Total Environ. 630, 668–678 (2018).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Grunst, A. S. et al. An important personality trait varies with blood and plumage metal concentrations in a free-living songbird. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 10487–10496 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacquin, L., Petitjean, Q., Côte, J., Laffaille, P. & Jean, S. Effects of pollution on fish behavior, personality, and cognition: some research perspectives. Front. Ecol. Evol. 8, 86 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Saaristo, M. et al. Direct and indirect effects of chemical contaminants on the behaviour, ecology and evolution of wildlife. Proc. R. Soc. B 285, 20181297 (2018).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Klaminder, J. et al. Drug-induced behavioral changes: using laboratory observations to predict field observations. Front. Environ. Sci. 4, 81 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Swank, A., Wang, L., Ward, J. & Schoenfuss, H. Multigenerational effects of a complex urban contaminant mixture on the behavior of larval and adult fish in multiple fitness contexts. Sci. Total Environ. 791, 148095 (2021).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Hentati, Y. et al. Environmental contamination predicts mammal diversity and mesocarnivore activity in the Seattle-Tacoma metro area. Urban Ecosystems. 28, 1–24 (2025).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Baxter-Gilbert, J., Riley, J. L. & Whiting, M. J. Bold new world: urbanization promotes an innate behavioral trait in a lizard. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 73, 1–10 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapiedra, O., Chejanovski, Z. & Kolbe, J. J. Urbanization and biological invasion shape animal personalities. Glob. Change Biol. 23, 592–603 (2017).

    Article 
    ADS 

    Google Scholar 

  • Pellitteri-Rosa, D. et al. Urbanization affects refuge use and habituation to predators in a polymorphic lizard. Anim. Behav. 123, 359–367 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, A. W. et al. The effect of urbanization on spatiotemporal interactions between gray foxes and coyotes. Ecosphere 13, e3993 (2022).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, C. E., Quinn, N., Eng, C. & Schell, C. J. Environmental health and societal wealth predict movement patterns of an urban carnivore. Ecol. Lett. 28, e70088 (2025).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bateman, P. W. & Fleming, P. A. Big city life: carnivores in urban environments. J. Zool. 287, 1–23 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Breck, S. W., Poessel, S. A., Mahoney, P. & Young, J. K. The intrepid urban coyote: a comparison of bold and exploratory behavior in coyotes from urban and rural environments. Sci. Rep. 9, 2104 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, J., Kays, R. & Hare, B. Coyotes living near cities are bolder: implications for dog evolution and human-wildlife conflict. Behaviour 157, 289–313 (2020).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, A. J., Marneweck, C. J., Kilgo, J. C. & Jachowski, D. S. Coyote diet in North America: geographic and ecological patterns during range expansion. Mammal Rev. 52, 480–496 (2022).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, M. H. & St. Clair, C. C. Individual flexibility in nocturnal activity reduces risk of road mortality for an urban carnivore. Behav. Ecol. 26, 1520–1527 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Farr, J. J. et al. A ten-year community reporting database reveals rising coyote boldness and associated human concern in Edmonton Canada. Ecol. Soc. 28, 19 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Poessel, S. A. et al. Patterns of human–coyote conflicts in the Denver Metropolitan Area. J. Wildl. Manag. 77, 297–305 (2013).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, C. E., Caspi, T., Stanton, L. A., Campbell, D. & Schell, C. J. Coexistence across space and time: Social-ecological patterns within a decade of human-coyote interactions in San Francisco. People and Nature 5, 2158–2177 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Heyser, C. J. & Chemero, A. Novel object exploration in mice: not all objects are created equal. Behav. Proc. 89, 232–238 (2012).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mettke-Hofmann, C., Ebert, C., Schmidt, T., Steiger, S. & Stieb, S. Personality traits in resident and migratory warbler species. Behaviour 142, 1357–1375 (2005).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Golden Beam, E. R., Berger, J., Breck, S. W., Schell, C. J. & Lambert, J. E. Habituation and tolerance in coyotes (Canis latrans), a flexible urban predator. Wildlife Letters. 1, 153–162 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Morton, F. B. et al. Urban foxes are bolder but not more innovative than their rural conspecifics. Anim. Behav. 203, 101–113 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson, K. E. Boldness behavior and chronic stress in free-ranging, urban coyotes (Canis latrans). Ohio State University (2018).

  • Wurth, A. Behavior and Genetic Aspects of Boldness and Aggression in Urban Coyotes (Canis Latrans). (The Ohio State University, 2018).

  • Open Data Network. https://www.opendatanetwork.com/.

  • Weather Spark. The Weather Year Round Anywhere on Earth. https://weatherspark.com/.

  • Gallo, T., Fidino, M., Lehrer, E. W. & Magle, S. B. Mammal diversity and metacommunity dynamics in urban green spaces: implications for urban wildlife conservation. Ecol. Appl. 27, 2330–2341 (2017).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Magle, S. B. et al. Wealth and urbanization shape medium and large terrestrial mammal communities. Glob. Change Biol. 27, 5446–5459 (2021).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 

    Google Scholar 

  • Haight, J. D. et al. Urbanization, climate and species traits shape mammal communities from local to continental scales. Nature Ecology & Evolution 7, 1654–1666 (2023).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2020 to July 1, 2022 (NST-EST2022-POP). (2022).

  • California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment. CalEnviroScreen 4.0. (2021).

  • Lombardi, J. V., Comer, C. E., Scognamillo, D. G. & Conway, W. C. Coyote, fox, and bobcat response to anthropogenic and natural landscape features in a small urban area. Urban Ecosystems 20, 1239–1248 (2017).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, K. L. & Harris, N. C. Humans disrupt access to prey for large African carnivores. Elife 9, e60690 (2020).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Friard, O. & Gamba, M. BORIS: a free, versatile open-source event-logging software for video/audio coding and live observations. Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 1325–1330 (2016).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Gisev, N., Bell, J. S. & Chen, T. F. Interrater agreement and interrater reliability: key concepts, approaches, and applications. Res. Social Adm. Pharm. 9, 330–338 (2013).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B. & Christensen, R. H. B. Package ‘lmertest’. R package version 2, 734 (2015).

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnusson, A. et al. Package ‘glmmtmb’. R Package Version 0.2. 0 25, (2017).

  • Anderson, D. R. & Burnham, K. P. Avoiding pitfalls when using information-theoretic methods. The Journal of wildlife management. 912–918 (2002).

  • Estien, C. O. Queering Ecology (Re)Constructing Ecology as a Home to Better Understand the Social-Ecological Pressures Wildlife Face. Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience. 11, 1–20 (2025).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Niesner, C. A. At Home With Coyotes: An Exploration of Human-Coyote Relations in the Los Angeles ‘Ecology of Selves’ (University of California, 2023).

    Google Scholar 

  • Breck, S. W., Poessel, S. A. & Bonnell, M. A. Evaluating lethal and nonlethal management options for urban coyotes. Human-Wildlife Interactions 11, 133–145 (2017).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nardone, A., Rudolph, K. E., Morello-Frosch, R. & Casey, J. A. Redlines and Greenspace: The Relationship between Historical Redlining and 2010 Greenspace across the United States. Environ. Health Perspect. 129, 017006 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Mettler, A. E. & Shivik, J. A. Dominance and neophobia in coyote (Canis latrans) breeding pairs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 102, 85–94 (2007).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanton, L. A. et al. Variation in reversal learning by three generalist mesocarnivores. Anim. Cogn. 24, 555–568 (2021).

    Article 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Windberg, L. A. Coyote responses to visual and olfactory stimuli related to familiarity with an area. Can. J. Zool. 74, 2248–2253 (1996).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Schell, C. J., Young, J. K., Lonsdorf, E. V., Santymire, R. M. & Mateo, J. M. Parental habituation to human disturbance over time reduces fear of humans in coyote offspring. Ecol. Evol. 8, 12965–12980 (2018).

    Article 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, D. T. & Gaston, K. J. Human–nature interactions and the consequences and drivers of provisioning wildlife. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373, 20170092 (2018).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. K., Hammill, E. & Breck, S. W. Interactions with humans shape coyote responses to hazing. Sci Rep 9, 20046 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Eapen, A. P. Human-Wildlife Coexistence with Coyotes in Los Angeles County, CA and Cook County, Il. (State University of New York at Albany, 2022).

  • Timm, R. M. & Baker, R. O. A history of urban coyote problems. Proceedings 12th Wildlife Damage Management Conference 272–286 (2007).

  • Prugh, L. R. et al. The rise of the mesopredator. Bioscience 59, 779–791 (2009).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia, A. C., Parsons, M. A. & Young, J. K. Effects of early-life experience on innovation and problem-solving in captive coyotes. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 76, 141 (2022).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. K., Touzot, L. & Brummer, S. P. Persistence and conspecific observations improve problem-solving abilities of coyotes. PLoS ONE 14, e0218778 (2019).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Marel, A., Waterman, J. M. & López-Darias, M. Barbary ground squirrels do not have a sentinel system but instead synchronize vigilance. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 75, 153 (2021).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Bednekoff, P. A. Mutualism among safe, selfish sentinels: a dynamic game. Am. Nat. 150, 373–392 (1997).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Pays, O. et al. Prey synchronize their vigilant behaviour with other group members. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 274, 1287–1291 (2007).

    Article 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Grunst, A. S., Grunst, M. L., Pinxten, R. & Eens, M. Personality and plasticity in neophobia levels vary with anthropogenic disturbance but not toxic metal exposure in urban great tits: urban disturbance, metal pollution and neophobia. Sci. Total Environ. 656, 997–1009 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Kobiela, M. E., Cristol, D. A. & Swaddle, J. P. Risk-taking behaviours in zebra finches affected by mercury exposure. Anim. Behav. 103, 153–160 (2015).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • Swaddle, J. P. et al. Exposure to dietary mercury alters cognition and behavior of zebra finches. Current Zoology 63, 213–219 (2017).

    Article 
    CAS 
    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Apte, J. S. & Manchanda, C. High-resolution urban air pollution mapping. Science 385, 380–385 (2024).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Caubel, J. J., Cados, T. E., Preble, C. V. & Kirchstetter, T. W. A distributed network of 100 black carbon sensors for 100 days of air quality monitoring in West Oakland, California. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53, 7564–7573 (2019).

    Article 
    ADS 
    CAS 
    PubMed 

    Google Scholar 

  • Ouyang, J. Q. et al. A new framework for urban ecology: an integration of proximate and ultimate responses to anthropogenic change. Integr. Comp. Biol. 58, 915–928 (2018).

    PubMed 
    PubMed Central 

    Google Scholar 

  • Moll, R. J. et al. What does urbanization actually mean? A framework for urban metrics in wildlife research. J. Appl. Ecol. 56, 1289–1300 (2019).

    Article 

    Google Scholar 

  • link

    Leave a Reply

    Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *